improve your photography . by E L Wright . this summer many thousands of exposures in either black and white or colour will be made by photographers of all kinds , and there is no doubt that many will wish that they had made a better job of it . so here you are shown how to obtain better results . the camera . the make and type of camera you use is not so important as many people try to make out . the expert will get splendid results from a cheap box camera ; others will get poor results from an expensive model . the greater the amount paid for a camera , and the more gadgets it has is no sure way of guaranteeing good results . but whatever model you have , study it carefully and know thoroughly how to work it and what its capabilities and limitations are . once you are master of your camera , you have gone a long way to good pictures . exposure . more negatives are spoilt by wrong exposure , especially by over-exposure , than by any other cause . modern films are so fast that one is apt to underestimate the amount of light reaching the film and so cause very dense images . the tables published by the film makers and included with the film are an excellent guide , but there is no doubt that a light meter is worth its cost . once set it takes all the guess work from exposure , and will show a high percentage of well graded negatives from which pleasing prints may be obtained . all photography depends on light reflected from the subject burning an image on the film ; the stronger the light the denser the image . but a light meter measures only the average amount of light reflected from the subject . thus a certain amount of care has to be exercised in its use . the common way of using one is to point it at the subject and take a reading . but what happens if you take your best girl in a white frock standing against a black background ? either she comes out with a white sheet of a face and frock , void of all detail , and a dense black background , or else the detail is present in her face and clothing and the wall looks peculiar . this is because you can not get a good reading with such a contrasty subject . now my way is to use the incident light method . most light meters are sold with a translucent mask which will fit over the light aperture . fit it every time you use the meter , and point the meter towards the light source , making sure that it points slightly downwards below the horizon , and not directly at the light . you will then get much better readings and hence much better negatives . I always use this method and rarely get wrongly exposed negatives or transparencies . while on this subject of exposure , do not forget a lens hood . this is one of the most valuable accessories it is possible to have , and use it every time you make an exposure . if you have not got one , then try to get one that is made for your particular camera for then it is specially computed not to interfere with the working of the lens . composition . after exposure the most important part of photography lies in the composition of the picture , but this is a topic that can not adequately be covered in the space allowed to me . you have all seen the portrait with the tree or telegraph pole standing out of the sitter &apos;s head , or the face screwed into a painful grimace because the subject is staring into a powerful sun . many books have been written about composition , but a short answer is , does the picture look right in all its aspects - position of subject ; balance ; colour or tonal range ? is there anything in the picture which seems alien to the idea being illustrated ? if there is , then the composition is not right . if you are interested in portraits then try to make your sitter take an interesting pose . do avoid making the subject stare directly at the lens ; a three quarter view is more appealing , and , if possible , do have the sitter doing something . looking at a book ; examining a statue or the scenery , or gardening ; anything that will take away that camera conscious look . and at all costs keep the background plain , for a distracting background spoils thousands of portraits each year . then again , many photographs shown to me for criticism have been spoilt by camera shake . do learn to hold the camera still and not jerk the button at the moment of exposure , especially you 35 mm people , for when your negatives or transparencies are enlarged the slightest bit of camera shake will be magnified many fold . it is not possible to cover all aspects of photography in this small space but it is hoped the foregoing will help you to better photography this year . expression in the primary school . by S C Clarkson . the first two years . there is , of course , no well-defined break at any normal stage of progress in expression , though one can see the nai&quot;ve work of the infant and the competent feeling for words of the young grammar school pupil . between these two stages the primary school has to formulate the ideas of personal composition , as well as giving the elements of grammar , spelling and style - the tools for the job . by and large today , the infant school is a separate entity . often the seven year old goes up to the big school , or to a different part of the town altogether . all teachers agree that the transfer should be as smooth as possible . the junior school teacher for the first two years should surely be aware of the infant methods and be in sympathy with those methods employed . what a set-back it is in expression-work of any sort , if the child on transfer is overawed or ill at ease in the new atmosphere ! most little ones have a contribution to make and are eager to learn and be sociable . this first eagerness should be guided and controlled but not damped or thwarted , if vital work is to be nurtured in the children . the primary teacher will find wide variation in both desire and power of expression . home backgrounds differ . some have sympathetic or indulgent parents . some homes are mere dormitories , with only the week-end allowing time for the parents to meet as a family . it follows then that the teacher will have to divide the classes into groups of roughly the same standard of progress and to allow for the advanced child as also for the slower one . the board of education , as it was in 1933 , made a true and wise statement in its suggestions handbook . written composition , it said , is generally begun too soon and practised too often . it is only tradition and obsession that demands a weekly piece of writing from each child in the class . if we look ahead a little to the work of the majority of our leavers , we must admit that few will need ( nor will they wish perhaps ) to have to write a formal letter . this is a reading world . but how can we make it a speaking world ? our children must first have something to say before they can write it . almost every lesson should give chance for the children to say their piece . the one word answer should be discouraged and the onus of response fairly shared . for some children will be needed a stimulus , for a domineering few the gentle brake . perhaps all may find individual opportunity in the small and carefully planned group or family . a folio of large pictures or posters , lively and colourful is collected and these are discussed and talked about in turn . occasionally during the term there is one child able to weave an interesting oral tale with this broadsheet as a starting point . incidentally useful illustrations have been gleaned from the covers of magazines ( Ronald Lampitt &apos;s aerial studies for the former John Bull are full of detail and good exercises in correct observation ) . the information sheets of the national savings movement I have found valuable , as indeed are most travel posters . in a word here , one should say , never destroy any picture . teachers can not have too many , future articles will show the use to which they may be placed in expression work . quite a few nervous children are diffident about facing a critical audience of their own fellows . to overcome this I have in the classroom a home-made television screen . my third article will explain the making of this apparatus . behind this cover I have found it more easy for some to make their announcements , conduct interviews , or retell and devise a commercial advertisement . some of the first attempts at composition will be the retelling of stories read or heard . here is little scope for original thought , and the severe discipline of the sequence of detail has to be observed . the great stories of the Bible ( not only the parables ) have inspired adult authors . the old testament is full of dramatic action - the two spies Joshua and Caleb ; the four leprous men who discovered the forsaken camp at Samaria told in 2 Kings , chapter 7 ; Paul &apos;s shipwreck in the Adriatic that fascinated Nelson before Trafalgar ; Naboth &apos;s vineyard , are all excellent material source for the young story-teller . so too are the merry jingles , nursery rhymes , limericks and sing-song skipping snatches - these by their very beat or homely humour are quickly memorised . they are worth collating into a personal anthology . progressive teachers will know of the similar series titled Sally go round the moon , and bells across the meadow , which seem to me to be a fine collection for speaking , learning , and enjoying . anecdotes on this style may be gleaned for telling and retelling by the children orally or on paper when sufficient skill is acquired . ( &amp;hellip; Sir Isaac Newton completely forgot about eating when his mind was on a problem . one day his landlady had to go out , but left him an egg to boil for three minutes . she returned much later to find Sir Isaac with the egg in his hand while his watch boiled merrily away in the pan . other fanciful tales could be made up on the same lines . pets are a natural centre of interest to children . quite young people will say how they care for their animals or will open out if they are privileged to hold a pet that has been brought to school . small booklets in the shape of animals can be contrived and filled with little stories and poems about animals . these can be individual and most delightful where the children have been interested and encouraged . my own charges are always asked to bring their cards to show ( and talk about ) on their birthdays , whilst immediately after Christmas each one in turn brings the favourite present , with where possible a talking demonstration . we have seen Bayko houses go up , steam engines turn , dolls be dressed , roller skates donned , and embryo conjurors explain their tricks ! at all ages in the primary school I set great store on the keeping of personal diaries . in these small lined notebooks , in which pencil may be used , one of the first tasks of the day is for an entry if possible . not all days are red-letter days , but a child will be glad at some slight happenings and wish to record the fact of getting all its sums or spellings correct ; of playing or supporting at a school match ; of the class weekly service ; broadcast lesson ; or visitor to the school . half of the booklet issued for the personal diaries is used for the compiling of a dictionary . except for the rarely used letters x , z , q , and y , a whole page is given to each of the remaining letters . at the beginning of the year all children copy in on the right page the days of the week , months and season , popular colours and the names of schools around . 